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An exhibit of the "Future Soldier" designed by the United States Army

An exoskeleton is a wearable device that augments, enables, assists, or enhances motion, posture, or physical activity through mechanical interaction with (i.e., force applied to) the user’s body.[1]

Other common names for a wearable exoskeleton include exo, exo technology, assistive exoskeleton, and human augmentation exoskeleton. The term exosuit is sometimes used, but typically this refers specifically to a subset of exoskeletons composed largely of soft materials.[2] The term wearable robot is also sometimes used to refer to an exoskeleton, and this does encompass a subset of exoskeletons; however, not all exoskeletons are robotic in nature. Similarly, some but not all exoskeletons can be categorized as bionic devices.

Exoskeletons are also related to orthoses (also called orthotics). Orthoses are devices such as braces and splints that provide physical support to an injured body part, such as a hand, arm, leg, or foot. The definition of exoskeleton and definition of orthosis are partially overlapping, but there is no formal consensus and there is a bit of a gray area in terms of classifying different devices. Some orthoses, such as motorized orthoses, are generally considered to also be exoskeletons. However, simple orthoses such as braces or splints are generally not considered to be exoskeletons. For some orthoses, experts in the field have differing opinions on whether they are exoskeletons or not.

Exoskeletons are related to, but distinct from, prostheses (also called prosthetics). Prostheses are devices that replace missing biological body parts, such as an arm or a leg. In contrast, exoskeletons assist or enhance existing biological body parts.

Wearable devices or apparel that provide small or negligible amounts of force to the user’s body are not considered to be exoskeletons. For instance, clothing and compression garments would not qualify as exoskeletons, nor would wristwatches or wearable devices that vibrate. Well-established, pre-existing categories of such as shoes or footwear are generally not considered to be exoskeletons; however, gray areas exist, and new devices may be developed that span multiple categories or are difficult to classify.

Purposes

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Steve Jurvetson with a Hybrid Assistive Limb powered exoskeleton suit, commercially available in Japan

Exoskeletons can serve various purposes related to medical, occupational, or recreational uses and are frequently categorized by their general field of use.

Medical exoskeletons

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Medical exoskeletons typically serve one or more purposes,[3] such as:

  • To assist movement or posture for a person with a physical disability or neuromotor impairment
  • To rehabilitate a person after an injury or disorder

Medical exoskeletons have been designed to support people with certain types of physical disabilities or neurological impairments including stroke, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, or limb loss.[4] These exoskeletons can target various specific purposes such as to help balance,[5] ambulation,[6] reaching,[7] grasping,[8] coordination,[9] or other functional movements.[10][11] For rehabilitation, an exoskeleton may only be used temporarily during a limited period of recovery, after which they may no longer require the device.[12] A rehabilitation exoskeleton can be designed to assist a person with movement impairment, for instance, to help stabilize movement or suppress tremors.[13] Alternatively, an exoskeleton can be designed to resist movement to enhance physical training or to help restore strength.[14] In this case, the exoskeleton is resisting the user in the near-term in order to assist them in recovering strength or capabilities in the longer-term. In either case, exoskeletons can be used to enhance the rehabilitation process by increasing the therapeutic dose (e.g., via increased repetitions or difficulty), constraining exercises to specific movements, reducing the required number of clinicians or clinician effort to provide therapy, or providing assessment of performance through on-board sensing. For assistance, an exoskeleton may be used chronically, intermittently, or only temporarily. Exoskeleton assistance can also be paired with other technologies or modalities, such as functional electrical stimulation (FES)[15] or epidural electrical stimulation (EES).[16]

Occupational exoskeletons

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Occupational exoskeletons have primarily been developed and deployed for the purpose of reducing injuries and fatigue in the workplace.[17] However, occupational exoskeletons may serve various purposes related to improving workplace safety or operations.[18] The most common purposes are:

  • To reduce injury risk, such as musculoskeletal disorders due to overexertion or prolonged postures[19][20]
  • To increase worker performance (e.g., productivity, quality, endurance) or operational efficiency[21][22][23][24]
  • To reduce worker turnover or enhance recruitment of new workers by improving worker well-being[25][26]

Military exoskeletons are often viewed as a sub-category of occupational exoskeletons. The term military exoskeleton refers to exoskeletons that are used to support military service members in performing their job duties.[27][28][29] Some military jobs are similar or identical to the equivalent civilian jobs. For example, a military mechanic or logistics worker may experience similar physical demands as a civilian mechanic or logistics worker. However, other jobs are unique to military service, for instance, for tank or artillery crewmembers. Physical demands associated with body armor and load carriage are also often elevated and unique for military relative to civilian jobs. For these reasons, some military exoskeletons have been developed to address military-specific jobs, environments, and challenges.[30][31]

Recreational exoskeletons

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Recreational exoskeletons serve the purpose of helping people to do or enjoy recreational activities, such as walking, hiking, skiing, or sports.[32][33][34] In this context, an exoskeleton may help a person to do a recreational activity for longer, to do it better, to do it with less strain, pain, or fatigue, or to do a recreational activity that they would otherwise be unable to do without the assistance and support of the exoskeleton. A common goal for recreational exoskeletons is related to healthy aging,[35] in other words, to empower people as they age and undergo natural physical decline to remain physically active and to engage in activities they enjoy. In some cases, recreational exoskeletons may be designed to resist movement to increase muscle strength training by making the movement more challenging. Recreational exoskeletons are sometimes also referred to as sports exoskeletons or consumer exoskeletons. However, some occupational and medical exoskeletons can have uses in non-professional, consumer settings so these categories can blur and some devices can fit into multiple exoskeleton categories. Recreational exoskeletons are a more nascent category (relative to medical and occupational exoskeletons) and their purpose and scope may continue to evolve over time.

Exoskeletons for other purposes

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Exoskeletons have also been designed for other purposes. There are some exoskeletons designed primarily for research or educational purposes, and these are termed research exoskeletons[36][37] and educational exoskeletons,[38] respectively. Exoskeletons for assistance or muscle training purposes in space may be termed space exoskeletons.[39] While these are somewhat similar to certain medical or occupational exoskeletons, they may not overlap completely. In some cases, a given exoskeleton may fit within multiple categories. As an emerging technology, exoskeleton categories are not rigidly defined. New categories or sub-categories of exoskeletons are gradually being added and refined over time.

Classification

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General model to classify the exoskeletons[40]

Categorisation of powered exoskeletons falls into structure, body part focused on, action, power technology, purpose, and application.[40]

Rigid exoskeletons are those whose structural components attached to the user’s body are made with hard materials such as metals, plastics, fibers, etc. Soft exoskeletons, also called exo-suits, are instead made with materials that allow free movement of the structural components, such as textiles.[40]

The action category describes the type of help the exoskeleton gives the user. Active exoskeletons provide “active” aid to the user, from an external source, without the user needing to apply energy. Passive exoskeletons need the user to perform the movement to work, and merely facilitate it. Hybrid systems provide a mix of active and passive. Powered technologies are further separated into electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic actuators.[40]

The exoskeleton’s purpose is divided into "recovery" exoskeletons used for rehabilitation, and "performance" exoskeletons used for assistance. The application categories includes military use, medical use, including recovery exoskeletons, research use, and industrial use.[40]

Design and current limitations

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Mobility aids are frequently abandoned for lack of usability.[41] Major measures of usability include whether the device reduces the energy consumed during motion, and whether it is safe to use. Some design issues faced by engineers are listed below.

Power supply

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One of the biggest problems facing engineers and designers of powered exoskeletons is the power supply.[42] This is a particular issue if the exoskeleton is intended to be worn "in the field", i.e. outside a context in which the exoskeleton can be tethered to external power sources via power cables, thus having to rely solely on onboard power supply. Battery packs would require frequent replacement or recharging,[42] and may risk explosion due to thermal runaway.[43] According to Sarcos, the company has solved some of these issues related to battery technology, particularly consumption, reducing the amount of power required to operate its Guardian XO to under 500 watts (0.67 hp) and enabling its batteries to be "hot-swapped" without powering down the unit.[44] Internal combustion engine offer high energy output, but problems include exhaust fumes, waste heat and inability to modulate power smoothly,[45] as well as the periodic need to replenish volatile fuels. Hydrogen cells have been used in some prototypes[46] but also suffer from several safety problems.[47]

Skeleton

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Early exoskeletons used inexpensive and easy-to-mold materials such as steel and aluminium alloy. However, steel is heavy and the powered exoskeleton must work harder to overcome its own weight, reducing efficiency. Aluminium alloys are lightweight, but fail through fatigue quickly.[48] Fiberglass, carbon fiber and carbon nanotubes have considerably higher strength per weight.[49] "Soft" exoskeletons that attach motors and control devices to flexible clothing are also under development.[50]

Actuators

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Pneumatic air muscle

Joint actuators also face the challenge of being lightweight, yet powerful. Technologies used include pneumatic activators,[51] hydraulic cylinders,[52] and electronic servomotors.[53] Elastic actuators are being investigated to simulate control of stiffness in human limbs and provide touch perception.[54] The air muscle, a.k.a. braided pneumatic actuator or McKibben air muscle, is also used to enhance tactile feedback.[55]

Joint flexibility

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The flexibility of human anatomy is a design issue for traditional "hard" robots. Several human joints such as the hips and shoulders are ball and socket joints, with the center of rotation inside the body. Since no two individuals are exactly alike, fully mimicking the degrees of freedom of a joint movement is not possible. Instead, the exoskeleton joint is commonly modeled as a series of hinges with one degree of freedom for each axis of rotations.[41]

Spinal flexibility is another challenge since the spine is effectively a stack of limited-motion ball joints. There is no simple combination of external single-axis hinges that can easily match the full range of motion of the human spine. Because accurate alignment is challenging, devices often include the ability to compensate for misalignment with additional degrees of freedom.[56]

Soft exoskeletons bend with the body and address some of these issues.[57]

Power control and modulation

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A successful exoskeleton should assist its user, for example by reducing the energy required to perform a task.[41] Individual variations in the nature, range and force of movements make it difficult for a standardized device to provide the appropriate amount of assistance at the right time. Algorithms to tune control parameters to automatically optimize the energy cost of walking are under development.[58][59] Direct feedback between the human nervous system and motorized prosthetics ("neuro-embodied design") has also been implemented in a few high-profile cases.[60]

Adaptation to user size variations

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Humans exhibit a wide range of physical size differences in both skeletal lengths and limb and torso girth, so exoskeletons must either be adaptable or fitted to individual users. In military applications, it may be possible to address this by requiring the user to be of an approved physical size in order to be issued an exoskeleton. Physical body size restrictions already occur in the military for jobs such as aircraft pilots, due to the problems of fitting seats and controls to very large and very small people.[61] For soft exoskeletons, this is less of a problem.[57]

Health and safety

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Exoskeletons can reduce the stress of manual labor, they may also pose dangers.[62] The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has called for research to address the potential dangers and benefits of the technology, noting potential new risk factors for workers such as lack of mobility to avoid a falling object, and potential falls due to a shift in center of gravity.[63]

As of 2018, the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has not prepared any safety standards for exoskeletons. The International Organization for Standardization published a safety standard in 2014, and ASTM International was working on standards to be released beginning in 2019.[62]

Fictional depictions

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Main article: List of films featuring powered exoskeletons

Exoskeletons have been depicted in many films, TV shows, science fiction books, and comics. However, most real-life exoskeletons differ drastically from the images and depictions in popular culture. The science fiction novel Starship Troopers by Robert A. Heinlein (1959) is sometimes credited with introducing the concept of futuristic military armor. Other examples of fictional exoskeletons include Tony Stark's Iron Man suit, the robot exoskeleton used by Ellen Ripley to fight the Xenomorph queen in Aliens, in Warhammer 40,000 the Space Marines, among other factions, are known to use different kinds of Power Armour,[64] the Power Armor used in the Fallout video game franchise and the Exoskeleton from S.T.A.L.K.E.R.[65][66][67] In some cases, these depictions have served as inspiration for exoskeleton designers and inventors. However, popular culture depictions have also led to considerable confusion, myths, and inflated expectations within the public, since many people associate exoskeletons with the make-believe, fantasy devices they encounter in popular culture and they may not have seen or been exposed to real-life exoskeletons. A list of these popular culture references is provided in a separate article entitled List of films featuring powered exoskeletons.

History

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Late 19th century and early 20th century

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Wearable devices that fit the modern definition of an exoskeleton were developed in the late 1800s and early 1900s. However, at the time, the term exoskeleton was not common, and the exoskeleton category was not well defined. Thus, many of the exoskeleton-like, predecessor devices were called names like braces, supporters, pedometers, or apparati. These included devices to assist posture, mobility (e.g., walking, running, jumping), physical work (e.g., bending, lifting, sitting, shoveling), and various body parts (e.g., legs, back, arms). These early exoskeleton-like devices spanned a wide range of structures and functions, including rigid and soft exoskeletons, and passive (elastic) and powered (active) exoskeletons. However, from the limited historical records it appears that most of these devices were prototypes or concepts, most were not commercialized, and none achieved wide adoption.

Various exoskeleton-like devices were developed between the 1880s and 1930s to assist with prolonged bending posture and other common agricultural work tasks. These included both rigid exoskeleton-like devices[68][69][70] and soft exosuit-like devices.[71][72] Some of these devices were fully on-body devices and worked by providing assistive forces and torques in parallel with the user’s muscles, while other devices assisted by transmitting forces to the ground, for instance, during seated posture[73] or stooping.[74]

During this same period, there were also exoskeleton-like devices designed to facilitate walking, running, or other locomotor activities. These included both rigid and soft devices, as well as devices that were both passive (elastic) and powered (active). One example of an early passive rigid exoskeleton-like device was an apparatus developed around 1890 by Russian engineer Nicholas Yagin.[75] This device consisted of bow springs connected between the user’s waist and feet, and was intended to use elastic energy storage and return to assist walking, running, or jumping.[75] Yagin developed several other related inventions.[76][77][78] An example of an early powered soft exosuit-like device was an apparatus developed by United States inventor Leslie Kelley around 1917 to augment running.[79] This device consisted of a backpack-worn steam engine (powered actuator), which assisted the user by controlling and transmitting mechanical power to wires (artificial ligaments) that ran in parallel with the user’s muscles. Various other exoskeleton-like devices were developed to facilitate locomotion[80] or assist people with physical disabilities.[81][82]

Mid 20th century

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Exoskeleton-like devices continued to be developed throughout the middle of the 20th century. This marked a period of exploration into the possibilities and challenges of wearable assistive technologies for human augmentation and rehabilitation purposes. One exoskeleton prototype, called Hardiman gained notoriety due to its level of sophistication, though it was not commercialized. This period also marked the emergence of one of the first exoskeleton success stories, in the form of wearable camera stabilizers. However, this was a niche solution and there was no broader exoskeleton market at the time, so this technology largely developed and matured as its own category. Even today, camera stabilizers are generally considered their own category and not included as exoskeletons, despite fitting the definition.

In the 1960s, an exoskeleton called Hardiman was co-developed by General Electric and the US Armed Forces. This exoskeleton was powered by hydraulics and electricity and amplified the wearer's strength by a factor of 25, so that lifting 110 kilograms (240 lb) would feel like lifting 4.5 kilograms (10 lb). A feature called force feedback enabled the wearer to feel the forces and objects being manipulated. However, the Hardiman had major limitations, including its 680-kilogram (1,500 lb) weight.[83] The Hardiman was designed as a master-slave system consisting of a set of overlapping exoskeletons: the slave device (outer exoskeleton) followed the motions of the master device (inner exoskeleton), which followed the motion of the human operator.[84] The response time for the slave suit was slow, and control issues caused "violent and uncontrollable motion by the machine" when moving both legs simultaneously. Hardiman's slow walking speed of 0.76 meters per second (2.5 ft/s) further limited practical uses.[85]

During this time, various other exoskeletons were also being developed,[86] which varied widely in design and characteristics; however, these were also mostly for research and demonstration purposes. There was also exploration into development and use of exoskeletons for clinical populations. For instance, in the 1970s Yugoslavia by a team led by Prof. Miomir Vukobratović developed pneumatically powered and electronically controlled lower limb devices to assist in the rehabilitation of people with paralysis.

In the 1970s, wearable camera stabilizers were developed and popularized. These could be considered to be a type of tool-holding exoskeleton. Wearable camera stabilizers work biomechanically by redirecting some or all the weight of the camera down to the user’s trunk or waist. This load path bypasses, and thereby reduces musculoskeletal loading on, the shoulders and arms of the user. Wearable camera stabilizers could be considered one of the first exoskeleton-like devices that was widely adopted in society and within a specific industry.

Late 20th century

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Exoskeleton development continued in the 1980s and 1990s, with various devices developed and futuristic concepts conceived. But most exoskeletons of this era were still not commercialized products, rather they were evolving testbeds and exploratory prototypes. Rigid and powered exoskeletons were a major focus during this period, as was the exploration of advanced robotic and control capabilities. A couple notable and representative exoskeletons of this period are summarized below.

In the 1980s, Los Alamos National Laboratory engineers proposed a futuristic exoskeleton called Pitman, a powered exoskeleton suit of armor for military infantry. The design included brain-scanning sensors in the helmet, but was considered too complex and impractical. It was never built. Another 1980s exoskeleton was the Lifesuit,[87] which was a robotic rehabilitation device to help people with paralysis to perform therapy exercises intended to help them regain mobility and learn to walk. Dozens of Lifesuit prototypes were built over the course of multiple decades, highlighting the iterative and evolving nature of exoskeleton technology during this period. Lifesuit was initially tethered but later developed into a portable exoskeleton, which the inventor (an individual with paralysis) used to walk in public road races. However, the inventor also recounted being injured (lacerated) by one of the prototypes during an experimental walking trial.[87] This incident highlights the importance of safety, which was a major focus of exoskeleton design and validation testing over the following decades.

Many other exoskeletons were conceived and developed during this era,[88] leveraging the technological advances of the time to move forward the engineering and technical aspects of exoskeletons. However, real-world and widespread use of exoskeletons were still decades away at the turn of the century. Many of the challenges related to user experience, usability, comfort, and implementation in the real-world were not yet priorities and had still not yet been addressed. These became key focus areas for improvement and advancement in the 21st century.

Early 21st century

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From 2000 to the early 2020’s, the focus of the exoskeleton field shifted and expanded, and there were major advances in the design, implementation, and adoption of exoskeletons. However, amongst the general public, there still continues to be many myths and misconceptions about modern exoskeletons—in part due to how exoskeletons have been portrayed in film and science fiction literature.

During the early 21st century, the focus on robotic, full-body, human augmentation exoskeletons that drastically alter human performance diminished, and there was a growing trend toward designing smaller, simpler exoskeletons to serve as wearable tools for specific uses and needs.

Between 2000 and 2020, there were several high-profile, full-body (or full-lower-body) powered exoskeletons developed to try to significantly increase human strength and performance. These included devices like TALOS, SARCOS,[89] BLEEX, and HULC. Despite some impressive technical capabilities, these devices had a number of major limitations related to bulk, cost, complexity, usability, intent recognition, control, and movement interference.[90] Ultimately, none of these exoskeletons were commercialized. However, several powered medical exoskeletons for people who were paralyzed or with other mobility impairments were successfully developed and commercialized (e.g., Rewalk, Vanderbilt exoskeleton), with the first devices receiving FDA approval in 2014.[91]

Most modern exoskeletons (i.e., devices from about 2020 and onward) are smaller, simpler, and more practical than their predecessors, and differ greatly from most people’s preconceptions about exoskeletons. The design focus of exoskeletons during this era was no longer on maximizing power, strength, augmentation, or futuristic capabilities, but instead on solving specific problems, being comfortable and practical to use, and increasing user adoption.[18][92][93][94] This reflected a general recognition and converging evidence within the field that if exoskeletons were going to become more widely adopted, then aspects like comfort, ease of use, cost, simplicity, and practicality were going to be as important, or more important, than aspects like technical specifications, assistance levels, or futuristic capabilities.

In many ways, the modern exoskeleton field has deviated from Hollywood narratives and fantasy depictions of exoskeletons, and moved in a different direction.[95] The vast majority of modern exoskeletons are more like wearable tools than like super suits or Hollywood exoskeletons (e.g., Iron Man, Edge of Tomorrow).

These wearable tools offer certain benefits but only for limited or specific use cases. For instance, if a person has calf muscle weakness after a stroke, then they might benefit from using an ankle exoskeleton. If a person works overhead on a manufacturing assembly line, then they might benefit from using a shoulder exoskeleton. If a person does material handling in a warehouse or distribution center, they might benefit from using a back exoskeleton.

Most exoskeletons are not intended to be worn all-day, every-day, but instead to be used (like most other tools) for specific purposes and during a subset of tasks or activities. Therefore, most modern exoskeleton are designed to support a specific area of the body or subset of tasks, not to augment the entire body or to enhance all movements or activities.

There have been several key exoskeleton trends during the early 21st century. Powered exoskeletons became light enough and affordable enough to be usable for some medical, industrial, and recreational purposes. Medical exoskeletons demonstrated sufficient safety to obtain regulatory approval (e.g., FDA approval[91]) and sufficient benefits to receive medical reimbursement for specific uses.[96][97] Passive exoskeletons grew in popularity due to being lighter, more affordable, and less complicated than powered exoskeletons.[98] Soft exoskeletons grew in popularity due to being lighter, less bulky, and less restrictive than rigid exoskeletons.[99] There was a heightened focus on how to best implement exoskeletons in society, by considering aspects like device fitting, training, educating stakeholders, social acceptance, maintenance, cleaning, financials, and change management.[100][101] Real-world exoskeleton usage grew significantly, particularly in medical and occupational settings, from negligible usage around 2000 to an estimated hundreds of thousands of exoskeletons now being used globally in the mid-2020s,[102] with the expectation that exoskeleton usage will grow into the millions in the 2030s.[102]

In the early 21st century, research on exoskeletons grew significantly[103] and established the scientific and clinical foundations related to safety, benefits, and efficacy. Universities and medical centers around the world played a pivotal role in the foundational research and development, followed by a trend towards more large-scale and long-term studies on exoskeletons in industry, clinics, and daily life.[104] There is now considerable academic and industry research along with scientific and longitudinal evidence underlying exoskeleton impacts on rehabilitation, performance enhancement, and injury risk reduction.[105][106]

The early 21 century has also witnessed the emergence of new exoskeleton categories, for instance, recreational, research, and educational exoskeletons. Although some of these devices have been conceptualized for a long time, they only recently began entering the commercial market. Recreational exoskeleton concepts, for instance, date back to at least the 1800s, but did not become commercially available until the early 21st century. In the late 2010s, skiing exoskeleton products emerged to help people enjoy skiing for a longer period or with less strain on their knees. In the early 2020’s, exoskeleton products to assist walking, running, or hiking also began to emerge. Some recreational exoskeletons are sold directly to consumers, whereas others are sold to businesses such as ski lodges or hiking parks, then provided as a rental option to visitors. As of early 2025, many of these recreational exoskeletons to assist ambulation are still at the pre-product stage or are products that just recently launched into the commercial market.

As of 2025, there are over 100 exoskeleton products on the market, which range widely in terms of size, complexity, cost, and other characteristics. However, as some new products enter the market and others exit the market or are replaced by newer models, it is challenging to track the precise number of exoskeleton products available. These different exoskeletons are developed and manufactured by dozens of different companies around the globe, which range from start-ups to established companies. There is also a growing network of companies that specialize in distributing, reselling, or implementing exoskeletons.

Most modern exoskeletons are for either occupational or medical applications. Modern medical exoskeletons serve a variety of assistive and rehabilitative uses and have regulatory approvals and insurance reimbursement codes in various countries. Modern occupational exoskeletons exist for legs, backs, arms, hands, and necks. There is longitudinal and converging evidence that, for certain jobs, occupational exoskeletons can reduce workplace musculoskeletal disorders and enhance worker performance and productivity.[22][23][24] However, as of 2025, exoskeletons are still considered an emerging technology in the workplace.[107] Occupational exoskeletons are either implemented as a wearable workplace tool or as an ergonomic control to supplement traditional ergonomic programs or interventions. As with any emerging technology, exoskeletons have witnessed a combination of successes and failures in the early 21st century. However, overall, the exoskeleton market is experiencing robust growth and exoskeletons are gradually becoming more common in society.

  • Some exoskeleton models

See also

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References

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